c.

c. AD 1200 – 1500 (Theory): The concept of a “Galactic Polity” is used to describe the spatial organization of Late Ceramic Age settlements, where large sites were linked to smaller ones through ritualized landscapes and physical infrastructure. In Cuba and Hispaniola, this is evidenced by the construction of mounds, causeways, and roads that connected residential areas to central plazas. Keegan and Hofman argue that this settlement pattern reflects the emergence of hereditary chiefs who exerted centralized control over communal labor and resource management. This archaeological model provides a more complex view of indigenous political organization than the simplified “tribal” labels used by early chroniclers.