c.

c. AD 1000 – 1500: The ceremonial centers of Puerto Rico are distinguished by multiple stone-lined courts, which stand in marked contrast to the large circular plazas found in Hispaniola. These courts served as venues for ball games and other social or religious gatherings that reinforced community identity. The architectural differences between these neighboring islands suggest that Puerto Rican societies possessed their own unique ideological foundations. Archaeologists argue that these structures were the result of divergent historical processes that shaped local political organizations. The study of these specialized spaces is essential for understanding how indigenous leaders organized communal labor and ritual life.