c.

c. 1816–1828: (Shaka and the Rise of the Zulu State — The Mfecane Reaching Its Height Between 1816 and 1819, Shaka Defeating the Ndwandwe and Scattering Refugees Across Southern-Central and Eastern Africa, Mzilikazi Crossing the Limpopo, Moshoeshoe Establishing the Sotho Mountain Stronghold, and the Creation of Permanent Regiments, the Short Stabbing Spear, and the Bull’s Horns Maneuver): The mfecane — derived from the Xhosa term meaning destitution and hunger, or difaqane (scattering) in Sotho — reached its height between approximately 1816 and 1819. Sobhuza’s Ngwane were expelled northward, and in the ensuing conflict between the Ndwandwe and Mthethwa, a commander in Dingiswayo’s army named Shaka, of the small Zulu chiefdom, rose to take control, defeating the Ndwandwe in a series of encounters that sent them and other Ngoni groups fleeing northward. These refugees scattered throughout southern-central and eastern Africa — Mzilikazi, leader of the Ndebele, crossed the Limpopo to settle in modern Zimbabwe; others moved into Malawi where they profoundly influenced the Chewa; others again wandered as far as Tanzania by the 1840s and 1850s. Other states arose from the need to defend against the Zulu threat, notably the Sotho led by Moshoeshoe, who established a mountain stronghold in modern Lesotho, attracted refugee groups, and retained independence through marital alliances and by playing the British and Boers against one another. By 1819, Shaka ruled a highly centralized state that would dominate the region until its destruction by the British in 1879. The Zulu state transcended kinship, developing an identity based on political and military power and territorial unity. Military innovations included permanent regiments (amabutho), highly disciplined and rigorously trained; the short stabbing spear replacing the throwing spear; speed and surprise in attack; and the bull’s horns envelopment maneuver. Regiments also had economic utility — young men herded cattle and hunted ivory, women cultivated for the state, and regimental villages were established across the kingdom. Shaka was murdered in 1828 at the instigation of his half-brother Dingane, who succeeded him.