c.

c. AD 1000 – 1500 (Ceremonial Ball Game): The batey, or ceremonial ball game, played a crucial role in both the social and political life of Greater Antillean communities. Played in stone-lined or earthen plazas, the game was often used as a ritualized alternative to warfare, allowing competing polities to resolve disputes and establish social standing. The layout of these courts, such as those at Caguana in Puerto Rico, frequently incorporated carved monoliths depicting cemís, further embedding the physical game within a deep cosmological and spiritual framework. This practice underscores the importance of public performance in maintaining the social hierarchy of the Caribbean’s hereditary chiefdoms.