c.

c. AD 400 – 1400 (Zooarchaeology): Detailed investigations at the Río Portugués in Puerto Rico have provided a long-term record of indigenous animal use. Research by G.R. DuChemin shows that communities utilized a wide array of species for food, tools, and ritual, reflecting a deep understanding of local biodiversity. The transition from early to late periods at this site reveals an intensification of resource management, including the husbandry of small mammals like the hutia (Isolobodon portoricensis). These findings are essential for reconstructing the daily domestic life and seasonal strategies of pre-Columbian Puerto Rican societies.