c.

c. AD 1200 – 1500 (Sociopolitical Structure): The “Cacique” (chief) served as the primary political and religious leader within Caribbean chiefdoms. Their authority was reinforced through the possession of “prestige goods,” such as duhos (ceremonial stools), polished stone celts, and gold-copper alloy (guanín) ornaments. Keegan and Hofman explain that a chief’s power was not absolute but depended on their ability to manage communal labor, lead successful raids, and act as a successful intermediary with the cemís (ancestral spirits). This sociopolitical model allowed for the creation of regional alliances and the management of large-scale agricultural and ceremonial projects across the Greater Antilles.