c.

c. AD 1200 – 1500 (Subsistence): The plant guáyiga (Zamia sp.) served as a critical food resource throughout the Caribbean, particularly in areas where manioc cultivation was challenging. While the roots of Zamia are naturally toxic, indigenous groups developed sophisticated processing techniques—similar to those used for bitter manioc—to extract edible starch. Archaeological evidence for its use is found in the form of specialized grater teeth and starch grain residues on stone tools. Keegan and Hofman note that this “famine food” likely provided a stable caloric backup that allowed communities to inhabit more marginal or seasonal environments, such as the limestone islands of the Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos.