1960: Expansion of Tonton Macoute Militia & Repressive Discourse: The regime intensified repression through militia violence and ideological propaganda.

1960: Expansion of Tonton Macoute Militia & Repressive Discourse: The regime intensified repression through militia violence and ideological propaganda. Significance: Institutionalized violence became central to state functioning. Politics was reframed as a sphere beyond moral norms. Nuance: Trouillot argues that although the regime normalized brutality politically, Haitian cultural ethics — especially the concept of respect — prevented full moral legitimation. The state gained fear, not moral authority. (Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti: State Against Nation (1990) p199)