1915–1934: (African Americans and Haitian Antioccupation Groups Using Foreign Periodicals to Circumvent Censorship — African Americans Present in Haiti as Cl…

1915–1934: (African Americans and Haitian Antioccupation Groups Using Foreign Periodicals to Circumvent Censorship — African Americans Present in Haiti as Clergy and Emigrants Reporting on Occupation Conditions, Haitian Antioccupation Groups Using Foreign Periodicals to Circumvent the Highly Censored Press, Vocal Proponents Including Auguste Garoute and Intellectuals Jean Price-Mars Perçeval Thoby and Georges Sylvain Advocating Through Union Patriotique and Union Nationaliste, Using Print Media Including the Courrier Haitien Le Nouvelliste Haiti Intégrale La Patrie and Le Matin, the UP and Cacos Never Having an Official Alliance but Symbolically Bound by Shared Contempt for the Occupation and Concern for the “Ladies and Young Girls” Who Were “Condemned” and “Left to Die of Wounded Pride”): African Americans were present in Haiti in various capacities as clergy and emigrants and reported on occupation conditions to their respective circles and presses. Haitian antioccupation groups meanwhile used foreign periodicals as a way to circumvent the highly censored press in Haiti. Vocal proponents of the urban desoccupation movements — such as Auguste Garoute — and intellectuals including Jean Price-Mars, Perçeval Thoby, and Georges Sylvain advocated for Haitian sovereignty and defended the nation’s capability of self-governance via the nationalist organizations Union Patriotique and Union Nationaliste. Through public forums and print media such as the Courrier Haitien, Le Nouvelliste, Haiti Intégrale, La Patrie, and Le Matin, these men voiced their discontent and warned their country about the dangers of the occupation to the Haitian polity. Although the UP and the cacos never forged an official alliance, they were symbolically bound by their shared contempt for the occupation and concern for, as one caco general expressed it, the ladies and young girls who were condemned and left to die of wounded pride. The armed resistance and the intellectual resistance both claimed women’s suffering as a justification for their movements — yet women themselves remained marginal to the formal structures of both.